Catherine Howard

Catherine Howard was Queen of England from July 1540 until November 1541 as the fifth wife of King Henry VIII. She was the daughter of Lord Edmund Howard and Joyce Culpeper, a first cousin to Anne Boleyn, and the niece of Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk. Her uncle secured her a place in the household of Henry's fourth wife, Anne of Cleves, where Catherine caught the King's interest.

Limited wardrobes for the commoners

Many ordinary people owned only one set of clothes for daytime wear and lacked dedicated sleepwear, opting to sleep in their smocks and nightcaps.

Footwear and Headgear in the Highlands

Highlanders often went barefoot and barelegged, though some wore simple single-soled shoes and flat, generally blue, soft caps.

Nightly Patrols by Civic Musicians

Civic musicians called waits often patrolled town streets at night on winter nights, providing entertainment and calling out the time or weather.

Paying Minstrels for Parish Festivals

Parish records show that minstrel hire for Whitsuntide festivities was common, with payments reaching up to 8s 4d for a single minstrel in 1533.

Carts were for cargo, not people

Carts and wagons were used to transport cargo, not people, and passengers who rode in them sat on the floor among straw or baggage. These vehicles were extremely slow and were widely considered an uncomfortable or shameful way for a person to travel.

Horses were the fastest travel option

Riding a horse was the fastest and most reliable way to travel for those who could afford one. A basic riding horse cost about £4 to £5, a sum many skilled tradesmen struggled to earn in an entire year.

Classical Schooling for Future Professionals

Education at the Dunfermline Grammar School focused on classical Latin and Greek literature to prepare students for employment in the Church or advanced legal studies.

Inexpensive rushlights versus luxury beeswax

Rushlights, made from dried plant pith dipped in tallow, were a common and inexpensive light source for the poor. In contrast, beeswax candles were luxury items, costing up to six times more than tallow.

Pottage was the staple daily dish

Pottage was the main daily dish for ordinary people, a thick soup made of cereals, pulses, vegetables, and occasionally meat that was cooked in a cauldron over an open fire.

The poor used acorns to make bread

When flour was scarce, the very poor would grind acorns to make bread as a desperate substitute.

Cost of Basic Food Items

A loaf of bread (24 oz) cost 1 penny, and 1 pound of cheese cost 1 1/2 pence. A skilled worker could buy a dozen eggs for 4d and a pound of cheese for 1 1/2d with their daily wage.

Earnings of Workers and Servants

Unskilled laborers earned between £5 and £10 per year, while skilled workmen typically earned about 6d per day. Farm workers often earned no more than half a shilling (6d) per day, and many servants were paid as little as six shillings annually plus board.

Imported luxury household goods

Luxury household items found in inventories from the 1530s, such as carved beds and Flanders counting tables, were likely imported from abroad.

Farming was the most common job

Farming was the primary occupation, with nine out of ten people living in rural villages or small towns.

Speed of royal courier mail delivery

Letters sent by royal post between Greenwich and Stirling around 1515 typically took five or six days to arrive. This exceptional speed was achieved by specialized court messengers traveling with the utmost possible rapidity.

Carriers and Delivery Times

Common carriers often traveled between major cities like London and Norwich, typically taking three or four days to complete the journey. These carriers were highly trusted and frequently carried valuables, such as money, alongside letters for their customers.