Mariana Victoria of Spain

Mariana Victoria of Spain was an Infanta of Spain by birth and was later the Queen of Portugal as the wife of King Joseph I. She acted as regent of Portugal in 1776–1777, during the last months of her husband's life, and as advisor to her daughter, Maria I of Portugal, during her reign.

Limited daily wardrobes

Ordinary women often owned only two sets of clothes: one for daily chores and another specifically for Sundays and feast days. Clothing was frequently made at home, where even the smallest scraps of fabric were repurposed to fit children.

The essential Spanish cape

For men, the cape was an essential garment that was never abandoned, even in death. It was so critical to one's public identity that even very poor men would be buried wearing one.

Dances at the Seville Corpus Christi festival

Corpus Christi processions in Seville were famous for their music and dances, including traditional performances by giants, a sword dance, and a Valencian dance that required eight dancers and two musicians. These celebrations were so popular that the Valencian group was specifically contracted to travel to Seville in 1722.

Dances at religious festivals

Religious festivals like Corpus Christi featured organized processions with fixed performances, including the dance of the giants and sword dances.

Mules were the primary means of transport

Most ordinary travelers and merchants relied on mules, as wheeled carriages were largely absent from long-distance travel until the late 18th century. Carriages were mainly used within cities, and ox-carts were restricted to short distances for heavy goods.

Official mail speed reached 165 kilometers daily

Travelers using the official mail service (postas) were expected to cover about 30 leagues per day, which is approximately 165 kilometers. Those not experienced in riding required much longer, as official regulations required 45 minutes per league between posts.

Dark homes with paper windows

Ordinary homes were dark because the poor could not afford glass and instead covered their small windows with oiled paper. Light and protection against the cold were luxuries reserved for the wealthy.

Eating from the communal pot

Commoners typically did not have individual tableware; instead, they often ate together from the same cooking pot using spoons. Foreign travelers frequently advised visitors to bring their own knives, forks, and spoons because they were rarely provided.

Daily purchase of ice for drinks

Wealthier households purchased a pound of snow daily to keep their drinks cool, a practice that highlights the luxury of temperature control.

Over half of income spent on food

Even modest households prioritized spending over half their budget on food, often including a daily ration of chocolate to maintain social appearances.

Cost of common food items

For household goods, a chicken cost 2 reales and a single egg cost 3 maravedís.

High wheat prices vs. daily wages

During the 1709 subsistence crisis, a bushel of wheat could cost 120 reales in places like Sanlúcar de Barrameda, while a common worker earned only 5 to 6 reales a day.

Snow workers' wages and labor conditions

Snow collectors in Valencia, known as shovelers, earned 6 sueldos and 8 dineros daily in 1764, while female workers faced a 40% wage gap compared to men. To avoid freezing, workers compressing the snow were rotated regularly.

Artisan working hours based on sunlight

Artisans in guilds worked from sunrise to sunset, meaning they labored for 12 to 14 hours in the summer and only 6 to 7 hours in the winter. Church or town hall bells signaled their working hours.

High daily speeds for royal couriers

In the 18th century, royal mail couriers were required to travel approximately 30 leagues per day, which is equivalent to nearly 170 kilometers.

Long transit times for transatlantic mail

Letters sent between Spain and the Americas by ship took an average of 45 to over 50 days for a one-way crossing.