Francesco II Sforza

Francesco II Sforza was Duke of Milan from 1521 until his death. He became duke after Emperor Charles V reconquered Milan from the French. He fought at the Battle of Bicocca against the French, but in 1526 joined the League of Cognac with Francis I of France. Surviving a poisoning, he married Christina of Denmark, but died childless. He was the last member of the Sforza family to rule Milan.

Extreme fabric usage in winter garments

In April 1511, some winter garments were so voluminous that they required up to 35 braccia of fabric, making them so heavy that they were difficult to wear.

Lavish gift of a priestly vestment

In 1514, a diplomatic gift to the Pope included a priestly vestment embroidered with pearls and precious stones, valued at over 25,000 ducats.

Domestic Instruments and Decorated Keyboards

By the mid-16th century, musical instruments like lutes, harpsichords, and spinets were found in households of various social levels, from noble families to barbers and merchants. Owners often decorated their keyboard instruments with mottoes such as There is dancing when I sing.

Popular Carnival Songs and Street Performances

Ordinary people in Florence during the early 16th century enjoyed carnival songs, which were popular secular tunes performed during processions, parades, and street revelry. These songs often featured witty texts about trade guilds or products, such as the Song of the Chimney Sweepers, and were sung by costumed groups.

Mountain travel time to Bologna

Travel between Florence and Bologna through the Apennine passes on horseback or mule typically took two to three days.

Transport via pack animals and ox carts

In the 16th century, mountain road transport was done entirely by pack animals, while carts pulled by oxen were only used on flat roads with rudimentary paving.

Dining arrangements in the home

Florentine homes lacked dedicated dining rooms; instead, tables were set up wherever convenient, such as in front of a fireplace during winter. Food was passed to diners who sat only on one side of the table.

Practical schooling and early childhood guidance

Merchant children attended abacus schools that taught reading, writing, and arithmetic in a practical way specifically for trade. By age four or five, play toys like swords and hobby horses were used to direct children toward their future societal roles.

Daily meal schedule for the poor

The poor consumed three scarce daily meals: bread soaked in wine upon waking, lunch around eleven, and dinner after sunset.

Meat reserved for special celebrations

Meat was reserved for special occasions like holidays, and when a family slaughtered a pig, they typically offered blood sausage to neighbors as a gesture of friendship.

Cost of footwear

While basic shoes were affordable at around 2 soldi, a pair of nice shoes could cost as much as 2 florins, equivalent to about 140 soldi.

Food costs and extreme shortages

Food prices fluctuated greatly, with meat like veal costing 3 soldi per pound in stable times, but skyrocketing during shortages when even mice were sometimes sold as food.

Common Jobs in the Wool Industry

The wool industry was the primary employer in Florence, relying on many unskilled laborers known as the Ciompi who prepared raw wool in merchant-owned workshops. Other common roles included silk production, construction, and various specialized artisanal trades.

Festive Kingdoms and Social Exclusion

Lower-class workers formed festive groups called potenze to reclaim social status, where they elected their own kings and turned their districts into mock kingdoms during holidays like May Day. Additionally, the Wool Guild once funded the massive Cathedral project, yet the subordinate wool-beaters who did the actual work remained excluded from guild politics.

Methods for sending letters

For short distances, people sent letters via acquaintances or passing carters, while merchants often hired innkeepers to manage regular courier services.

Speed of postal delivery

Regular couriers typically traveled on foot or horseback, covering about 60 to 70 kilometers per day, while those needing faster delivery could pay extra for a dedicated courier.