Francis Borgia, 4th Duke of Gandía

Francis Borgia, was a Spanish Jesuit priest. The great-grandson of both Pope Alexander VI and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, he was Duke of Gandía and a grandee of Spain. After the death of his wife, Borgia renounced his titles and became a priest in the Society of Jesus, later serving as its third superior general. He was canonized on 20 June 1670 by Pope Clement X.

Men's Hairstyles and Layered Robes

Men often grew long beards and hair, sometimes styling the tips into curls. Clothing could be layered, with high-status individuals wearing a pellizón, which was a long robe with wide, loose sleeves that could be knotted at the ends.

The Colorful Woolen Tunic Called Saya

Ordinary people wore a tunic called a saya, which was often made of wool and dyed in various colors like red, purple, ocher, blue, green, white, or black. It was typically worn by peasants and artisans, sometimes featuring an open neck known as an amigaut.

Cathedral music and instrument maintenance

In the Pamplona Cathedral during the early 16th century, musicians such as chirimia players were officially employed, and payments for instrument maintenance, like repairing a bajon, were recorded in ducats.

Entertainment at new mass celebrations

New mass celebrations often lasted two days, featuring hired minstrels for entertainment; attendees often gave money to the hosts, believing it helped secure indulgences.

Limited river navigation

Rivers in the region were generally not navigable, except for the Ebro, where small boats transported goods like grain, wine, and iron.

Mules as primary transport animals

Travelers often used mules, which were the most valuable assistants for transport and could be used for riding or carrying cargo.

Domestic heating and cleaning methods

Households used braziers to heat laundry and water for cleaning, as homes lacked modern amenities like running water.

Household as the center of life

The household served as the primary center for education, work, and life, with tasks like laundry and water fetching falling to women and domestic servants.

Large feasts and local wine consumption

Ordinary people often held large feasts after mass, consuming lamb, veal, and wine from local towns like Artajona and Olite. These communal meals were so common that they were eventually restricted by law in 1757 to prevent excessive spending and disorder.

Wine as a daily essential drink

Wine was the essential daily drink, considered vital for health and often mixed with water because pure water was frequently unsafe to consume. It was consumed by all social classes, and many people carried their own measuring tools to ensure the wine was diluted correctly.

Labor Wages in Construction Projects

For construction projects like fortification, labor wages accounted for between 65 and 100 percent of total costs.

Meat Consumption and Hunting Practices

Lamb was the most consumed meat, and hunting was crucial to supplement low calorie diets rather than just being a noble sport.

Agricultural life and self-sufficiency

About 80 percent of Navarre's population relied on agriculture, with most households aiming for self-sufficiency. Two-thirds of farmers combined agricultural work with artisan activities.

Seasonal and domestic labor rhythms

Daily life followed seasonal tasks like the pig slaughter in November, a scene frequently depicted in medieval carvings and paintings. Household chores often centered around the hearth, where servants and family members performed tasks like drying laundry.

Daily travel distances and hardships

On foot, a messenger could cover between 25 and 60 kilometers per day, while travel on horseback could reach 60 to 90 kilometers daily, depending on the terrain, the animal, and the rider. Messengers often saved money by eating only two or three meals a day and sleeping in the open rather than in inns.

How ordinary people sent letters

Ordinary people typically sent letters by hiring their own messengers, or by asking travelers, merchants, or acquaintances traveling to the destination to deliver them as a favor or for a fee. Official royal mail systems were generally restricted to state use, and private, reliable postal services for the general public did not yet exist.