Louis of Parma, king of Etruria

Louis I was the first of the two kings of Etruria. Louis was the son of Ferdinand, Duke of Parma, and Maria Amalia of Austria. He was born in 1773, when his great-grandfather, King Louis XV of France, was still alive.

Daily Versus Festive Attire

The clothing construction was strictly dictated by social customs, with differences between daily wear and festive attire being more pronounced in women's clothing than in men's. Elaborate decorations such as embroidery and fine ornaments were significantly more abundant on garments worn during religious festivities and celebrations.

Sardinian Costume as Cultural Identity

During the second half of the 18th century, traditional Sardinian costume became a distinct and exclusive form of cultural heritage that served as a tool for ethnic and social identification. Although garments varied by village, they were deeply rooted in the daily lives of the population.

Handel's music in Florence

Grand Duke Pietro Leopoldo supported Handel's vocal music, and his collection included manuscript scores of works like Alexander's Feast and Judas Maccabaeus.

Pergolesi's Stabat Mater tradition

During Lent in Florence, a popular and recurring musical event was the performance of Pergolesi's Stabat Mater, which became a hallowed tradition.

Hours spent walking to fields

Commuting to distant fields often took several hours of walking, because agricultural lands were generally far from the villages.

Strict schedules for grain carts

Farmers transporting grain to cities used slow ox-drawn carts and had to arrive before noon, or they were forced to stay overnight in the town outskirts.

Primitive one-room homes for the poor

For the poor, homes were primitive, one-room ground-floor dwellings built from raw bricks or stone with packed-earth or cobblestone floors and no windows. The hearth was dug into the floor in the center of the room, and the home contained only a large parents' bed and mats for the children.

Peasant Cooking and Meals

Peasant families frequently cooked large pots of vegetable soup, especially on Fridays when meat was avoided. Leftovers were repurposed by reboiling the soup in a pan with bread on subsequent days.

Bread as the daily foundation

For ordinary families, bread was the central pillar of daily nutrition, often complemented by cheese, legumes, seasonal fruits, and occasionally pork from home-raised pigs.

Tomatoes were a daily staple food

During the eighteenth century, tomatoes were already part of the daily diet in Sardinia and were preserved for long-term use with vinegar, a preparation known as sa pibarda.

Cost of game and poultry

In Nice, part of the Kingdom of Sardinia at the time, a capon, a brace of partridges, or a good hare cost 30 sols.

Price of butcher's meat

Butcher's meat in Nice generally sold for 3 sols per pound, though the local pound was only twelve ounces.

Common jobs in 18th-century Sardinia

Most people worked in agriculture as farmers, shepherds, or seasonal day laborers, while urban areas supported artisans, merchants, and service workers. Servants were also common, with men typically working in the fields and women performing household tasks like cleaning and baking.

Demanding labor for servants

Female servants often performed physically demanding work like transporting heavy laundry loads on their heads or shoulders to distant rivers, regardless of the weather. Because of the necessity to save money to marry, many young people remained in servitude until they reached age thirty.