Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany

Cosimo III de' Medici was Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1670 until his death in 1723, the sixth and penultimate from the House of Medici. He reigned from 1670 to 1723, and was the elder son of Grand Duke Ferdinando II. Cosimo's 53-year-long reign, the longest in Tuscan history, was marked by a series of laws that regulated prostitution and May celebrations.

Courtly feast day costumes featured exotic feathers

For special feast day performances at court, such as those in the 1640s, noble performers wore intricate costumes featuring exotic elements like heron feathers, which were a popular decorative motif.

Alamari loops served as fashionable modern fasteners

In the 1650s, court costumes introduced modern decorative elements like alamari, which were folded loops used for fasteners and ornamentation on luxury garments.

Zither playing in 1645 festival

At the 1645 court festival in Rivoli, musicians representing the Monferrato region played the zither and danced in the Italian style.

Instruments at Savoy festivals

Festivals during this era featured diverse instrumental music, including lutes, flutes, and trumpets used to accompany banquets and theatrical dances.

Alpine Travel and Porter Fees

Crossing the Alps required changing transport methods, where travelers sometimes hired specialized porters to carry them in sedan chairs across steep, non-carriageable mountain passes for a fee of one Spanish pistol per person.

Daily Travel Distance for Alpine Travelers

Travel times were highly variable due to terrain and weather, but Alpine travelers generally covered between 20 and 40 kilometers per day on average.

Communal dining habits and etiquette

Dining often involved sharing dishes, cups, and bowls, requiring guests to eat sparingly to leave food for others, as the key rule at the table was sharing.

Everyday diet of the common population

For ordinary people, hunger was a constant concern due to weather-related production problems, and they relied mainly on bread, cereal porridge, vegetables, and small amounts of meat.

Chicken was rarely eaten

For peasant families, eating chicken was a rare event, considered a sign that the bird was not worth selling at the market.

The humble paniccio dish

In the Novara countryside during the 17th century, ordinary families relied on paniccio, a dish made with beans, as a staple food.

High salt costs impacted livestock economy

Salt was so expensive in the Duchy of Savoy that officials feared high prices ruined households and discouraged farmers from giving necessary portions to their cattle. This high cost of salt negatively affected milk, cheese, and meat production.

Publicly regulated bread prices and supply

Public authorities in Turin strictly regulated the bread supply, setting official prices based on wheat market fluctuations to ensure social stability. They conducted bread tests to calculate production costs and guarantee an affordable supply for residents.

Large financial transaction in 1642

In 1642, two Lyon bankers named Picquet and Strassi provided a substantial financial guarantee of 10,000 gold écus to the Duchess of Savoy, Christine de France.

Daily rhythms of city life

In many Savoyard towns, people typically rose early, with city gates opening at 4 a.m., and went to bed around 8 p.m. Daily life for many ordinary people often included a combination of trade work and small-scale agricultural activities on small plots of land near towns.

Recognizable postal couriers

Official couriers were recognizable by their equipment, including thick leather boots and a curved horn used to alert stations to ready a relay.

Sending letters during the plague

To ensure delivery during plague outbreaks, correspondents often sent multiple copies of their letters along different routes at great expense.