Princess Beatrice de Borbón y Borbón-Parma di Massimo, Princess of Roviano

Princess Béatrice of Bourbon was the third daughter and fourth child of Prince Carlos, Duke of Madrid, the Carlist claimant to the throne of Spain and the Legitimist claimant to the throne of France, and Princess Margherita of Bourbon-Parma.

Sunday workwear with a white cravat

A 7 November 1880 “tableau de Wenzel” shows four women gathering olives, including one wearing a neat work costume with a white cravat and a yellow fichu over a white headcloth. The source notes the outfit seemed “too coquettish” for work, explained by the fact it was Sunday.

Quimper workers kept festal clothes apart

In Quimper (Brittany), rural workers could keep their everyday work clothes separate from festival clothing, sometimes commissioned for weddings. This made clothing a visible marker of identity and social position.

Songs at wool-carding gatherings

During social wool-carding gatherings, young men offered flowers to women accompanied by sung verses, with the women required to respond in kind.

The ballu tundu national dance

The ballu tundu, a circular chain dance, was the quintessential national dance of Sardinia, involving complex, secret hand pressures to coordinate movements.

Challenges of early travel

Before railways were built, travel was often restricted to mule tracks or rudimentary roads, such as a 6-mile trip to Osilo that could only be made on horseback and took 6 hours.

Maritime travel to Sardinia

Steamers connecting Genoa to Sardinia typically took 24 to 26 hours to reach Porto Torres, and passengers landing in Cagliari were not subject to custom-house or police visits.

Creative food preservation and tool recycling

Families preserved eggs for months by storing them in a mixture of four parts water and one part lime, leaving the storage pots permanently marked with white residue. Tools were also creatively repurposed, such as graters fashioned from old, unusable farm hoes pierced with a hot iron.

Modest homes and contaminated water supplies

In homes before electricity, families often lived in just a few square meters, using a ground floor room as a kitchen and an upstairs room for sleeping. Lacking public water pipes, residents relied on wells or public fountains, and their drinking water was often contaminated due to the absence of sewage systems.

Daily Meals Based on Soup and Bread

Ordinary families typically relied on a single daily meal, often a soup (minestra) made of vegetables, potatoes, lard, or salted pork, frequently served with bread. For many, meat was an exceptional treat reserved for Sundays, holidays, or celebrations like weddings.

Frugal Breakfasts and Coffee Substitutes

Before true coffee became widespread, many families drank an infusion made from roasted chickpeas, wheat, barley, or even acorns. Breakfast was very frugal, consisting of little more than a piece of bread and occasionally a small amount of jam.

High wages in Sardinia sector

Building sector workers in Sardinia earned nominal wages that were considered high compared to other regions of Italy following national unification.

Meat prices under the Second Empire

During the Second Empire, the price of a pound of meat increased from 49 to 68 centimes.

Home-based linen spinning wages

Poor women in Lombardy spun linen for 150 days a year, earning only three sous per day for their labor while working from home.

Laborer wages and living conditions

Young laborers in chemical plants earned 1.50 lire for a ten-hour workday, often living in crowded, shared dormitory halls where multiple people slept in a single bed.