Frederick Michael, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken

Frederick Michael, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken-Birkenfeld was a member of the Wittelsbach dynasty. He was the son of Christian III of Palatinate-Zweibrücken and Caroline of Nassau-Saarbrücken and a member of the House of Palatinate-Zweibrücken-Birkenfeld, a branch of the House of Wittelsbach. He was the father of the Bavarian King Maximilian I Joseph.

Hoops Worn by Servants

While hoop petticoats were iconic for the elite, even some working-class servant women wore them when going to market by 1729.

Aprons as Occupational Markers

On working days, both men and women typically wore aprons, which often became stained by their specific occupations, such as printing or butchery.

The Pocket-Sized Teacher's Violin

To make professional dance lessons convenient at home, masters used the pochette, a small, boat-shaped violin that could be easily carried in a pocket or sachet.

Public concert series started in Paris

Starting in 1725, Parisians could attend public concerts organized by the Concert Spirituel society, which performed in the Tuileries Gardens when the Opéra was closed for religious festivals.

Common modes of personal travel

While the wealthy used carriages, ordinary people frequently traveled on foot or relied on pack animals like mules for longer journeys between towns.

Regulated river transport fares

For river travel, fares were strictly regulated and often posted on metal plates attached to the masts of the boats to prevent overcharging.

Intense use of single-room dwellings

Ordinary homes often consisted of a single room used for all daily activities, including cooking, sleeping, and childcare, with furniture rearranged throughout the day. In rural areas, houses were typically made of wattle and daub with thatched roofs, often lacking glass windows and floorboards.

Limited and irregular primary education

Primary schooling was rare, especially for girls, and often conducted irregularly by the local priest or his vicar. Education was limited to the basics of reading, writing, and the catechism.

Cost of living for laborers

In the early 18th century, a laborer earned about 112 livres per year and spent over half of his income, 53 percent, on grain and bread.

Daily bread rations for a family

A weaver's family in Rouen consumed a daily bread ration of 1,222 grams for the husband, 983 grams for the wife, and 659 grams per child.

Cost of bread and daily wages

In 1713 and 1714, a pound of bread cost 2 sols and 9 deniers, while a common manual laborer earned between 7 and 14 sols per day depending on the region.

Daily wages for ordinary workers

In the mid-18th century, a rural laborer typically earned about 16 sols per day, while city workers could earn between 10 and 30 sols. A full day's work was often required just to afford bread for the family.

A long sunrise-to-sunset workday

The workday typically lasted eleven to thirteen hours, starting at sunrise and continuing until sunset, with short breaks for meals.

Cleaning up after lavish noble feasts

In large households, kitchen staff had to work for six days straight just to wash all the china and cutlery used after a major dinner feast.

Average daily speed of mail transport

Mail was typically transported by post chaise at an average speed of about 30 to 40 kilometers per day.

Travel time for letters in Europe

In the early 18th century, ordinary mail took about twelve to fifteen days to travel from Paris to Madrid and about four days from Paris to London.