Francisco Gómez de Sandoval, 1st Duke of Lerma

Francisco Gómez de Sandoval y Rojas, 1st Duke of Lerma, 5th Marquess of Denia, 1st Count of Ampudia, was a favourite of Philip III of Spain, the first of the validos through whom the later Habsburg monarchs ruled. His administration was marked by costly wars, including the Twelve Years' Truce with the Dutch Republic, financial mismanagement, and the controversial expulsion of the Moriscos.

Clothing as a Valuable Asset

Poor rural laborers often owned only one set of clothing, sometimes in such disrepair that it barely covered their bodies. This clothing was a valuable asset often included in wills and dowries, and even used to pay funeral taxes.

Costly and Heavy Headpieces

In the 16th century, women in some regions wore elaborate, heavy headpieces made of linen or crepe that were so costly and uncomfortable they petitioned for them to be reformed. These headpieces were so large and oddly shaped that observers likened them to baskets of cherries or ships sailing with full wind.

Home music and the vihuela

The vihuela was a widely played instrument at home, and seven printed songbooks published between 1536 and 1576 contain hundreds of secular works including ballads, sonnets, and villancicos. These books were instrumental in spreading music beyond elite courtly circles into ordinary households.

Instruments in church and processions

During Holy Week, the Church replaced bells with wooden instruments called matracas to commemorate the death of Jesus, as bells were considered the voice of Christ. Minstrels playing wind instruments like shawms, sackbuts, and flutes were also central to both sacred processions and secular street festivals.

Daily travel distances on horseback

Travelers typically covered four to six leagues per day on horseback, with exceptional days reaching seven or eight leagues. A league was a unit of distance used in Spain during this period.

Horses and mules for travel

Travelers relied exclusively on horses for personal transport and mules for carrying luggage, as exemplified by the Venetian traveler Andrés Navagero. Navagero noted significant expenses for purchasing mules and horses for his journey.

Cooking and dining in the kitchen

The kitchen was the heart of the home, where families gathered around a low fireplace to cook, eat, and socialize. Food was often handled with fingers as forks were not yet in general use.

Food costs and daily wages

For the price of just one blanca—half a maravedí—it was possible to purchase 9 fresh or salted sardines. An average laborer earned about 17 maravedís per day.

Bread was the staple food

Bread made from grains like rye, wheat, and barley was the essential daily staple for the common people, often consumed with humble sides like fatback, legumes, or onions.

Meat was a rare luxury

Meat was a luxury rarely eaten by the poor, and consuming it was a symbol of wealth and power, often reserved for special occasions or festivities.

Daily wages in Seville in the 1550s

A casual laborer in Seville typically earned about 74 maravedíes per day during the 1550s.

Gender wage gap in 1553 agriculture

In 1553 Requena, male field workers earned between 34 and 68 maravedíes per day depending on the month, while women earned a fixed rate of only 17 maravedíes per day.

Long days and regulated wages

Agricultural laborers were required to work from sunrise to sunset, and municipalities enforced strict daily wage caps that varied by season, often ranging from 30 to 68 maravedíes.

Morning hiring and harsh labor control

Laborers often gathered at a designated plaza before dawn to be hired, and municipal authorities sometimes threatened strikers or those refusing to work with imprisonment.

High Costs for Private Mail

For private individuals, the cost of sending mail was high, as a simple letter from Madrid to Seville cost one real, which was paid by the recipient. Receiving large volumes of correspondence could be financially ruinous.

Long-Distance Transatlantic Communication

Letters sent from Mexico City reached Spain in less than 67 days, while correspondence between Castile and Peru could circulate in less than six months. It was considered reasonable to expect a round-trip letter exchange between distant cities in about three months.