Charles IV of Spain

Charles IV was King of Spain and ruler of the Spanish Empire from 1788 to 1808.

Poor citizens wore cheap cloth slippers

In 18th-century Modena, the poor frequently wore cloth slippers, which were extremely cheap and easily made from scrap materials.

Soldiers' neckcloths indicated their rank

In the Duchy of Modena, soldiers' neckcloths served as rank identifiers, with ordinary soldiers tying them at the back and corporals wearing them with the ends hanging down at the front.

Lenten oratorio performances at San Carlo

During Lent, ordinary people and nobles attended oratorio performances at the San Carlo Rotondo, a central venue for religious music in Modena. These performances were often supported by the Ducal Chapel to strengthen religious and political ties.

Music in streets and squares

Outdoor public events featured brass and percussion musicians who accompanied processions and rituals in streets and squares. These performances blended with the sounds of the crowd, creating a conversational atmosphere shared across different social groups.

Forced labor for winter road maintenance

To keep the road clear during harsh winters, local men were forbidden from leaving their homes for six months, from December to May, under penalty of imprisonment. They were assigned specific sections to clear of snow, and the work was paid for by the state.

Travel by foot, mule, or carriage

For most people, travel between towns along the mountainous Via Vandelli was done on foot, horseback, or by mule, while only the flatter Emilian stretch could accommodate carriages. A full journey between Modena and Massa took about one week, even with postal service arrangements.

Education and work for poor children

Religious institutions, such as the local poorhouse, provided basic education for children, which included lessons in reading and writing alongside rigorous work schedules and religious observance. Many children also learned trades by working in city workshops or spinning mills under the guidance of older laborers.

Rural home layout and food storage

Rural homes featured a spacious kitchen that served as the heart of daily life, where families prepared bread, processed pork, and performed household chores. The kitchen was typically south-facing to catch the sun, while cellars were positioned on the north side to keep food cool.

Bread as the common staple food

While nobles enjoyed refined breads, the main daily food for common people was bread made from grain, often in the form of simple, rustic focaccias.

Summer refreshments called latati

During hot summer months, people refreshed themselves with drinks called latati, which were milk-like beverages made from ingredients like lemons, citrons, and almonds.

Generous daily wine rations

Workers in northern Italy often received significant daily wine rations, sometimes ranging from 1 to over 5 liters, as part of their in-kind compensation.

Cost of game and poultry

In Nice, part of the Kingdom of Sardinia at the time, a capon, a brace of partridges, or a good hare cost 30 sols.

Common jobs in Modena

In the mid-eighteenth century, a large portion of the workforce was employed in the textile and clothing sectors, which accounted for approximately 40% of occupations. Other common roles included food production, metalwork, and leather processing.

Memorable facts of working life

Workers in charitable hospices had to wear a visible license badge and were forbidden from selling their work tools, while city sewer cleaning was specifically performed on rest days when other work was suspended. Artisans serving the court, such as painters and gilders, were frequently observed suffering from occupational health issues caused by materials like mercury.