Infante Francisco, Duke of Beja

Infante Francisco, Duke of Beja was a Portuguese infante (prince) son of Peter II, King of Portugal, and his second wife, Maria Sofia of the Palatinate.

Status Display in Merchant Wardrobes

Merchants during this period carefully curated their wardrobes to project status, often documenting expensive items like silk dresses or velvet breeches in their inventories while omitting common daily wear. Symbols of wealth and social standing included items like a crimson red woman's cape valued at 12,000 réis or a fine cloth suit costing 10,000 réis.

Maintaining appearances with limited clothing

Social strivers would meticulously maintain their limited clothing, washing and soaping collars and cuffs, and using animal fat to keep shoes looking shiny even when the soles were worn through. They also applied powders to their hats to mask age and wear, aiming to project an appearance of higher status.

Domestic dance music for amateurs

Wealthy amateurs in domestic settings played French-style dance music, adapted for instruments like the keyboard, guitar, lute, and harp. These arrangements were often facilitated by the circulation of short scores.

Religious music life in Angra

In Angra, ordinary people frequented churches where they heard liturgical chant, congregational hymns, and occasionally polyphony or instrumental music. Some hermitages, like Nossa Senhora dos Remédios, were particularly popular for the daily singing of the rosary.

Traffic chaos in 17th-century Lisbon streets

In late 17th-century Lisbon, coaches were luxury items that caused severe traffic congestion in narrow medieval streets, leading to violent disputes between elite passengers. Due to their size and the city's topography, sedan chairs and horse-litters remained the preferred transport for the quality.

Daily travel distances were limited

A standard daily distance for a hurried group with horses was about 40 kilometers, though speeds were much lower if using oxen.

Cooking Tools and Costs

While ceramic cooking pots were common and cost about 5 réis each, metal pots were considered expensive items. Poor families often relied on simple hearths for cooking, as specialized fireplaces were comparatively rare in the Portuguese climate.

The Multipurpose Rural Home and Hearth

In rural homes, the fireplace was the central point for cooking, resting, and daily family life, often situated on a ground floor of packed earth. Households frequently consisted of a single room where furniture served multiple purposes, such as tables used for both eating and seating.

Cod as a Staple Food

During the late 17th century, ordinary Portuguese families relied on dried and salted cod, known as bacalhau, as an essential and affordable source of protein, especially during religious periods of abstinence like Lent. Cod was prized by the poor because it was fully utilized—from the loin to the tongue—making it economical and long-lasting in the kitchen.

Bread used as a thickener

To thicken broths and stews, a common practice was using bread; for instance, a fish stuffing recipe included five réis of breadcrumbs.

Lisbon olive oil price changes

Olive oil prices in Lisbon remained constant until 1670, then declined until about 1692 before beginning a steady rise.

Wheat rent in early 18th-century Avis

In 1700, a resident of the town of Avis paid a tax of 520 réis for the wheat he owed as rent on a farm.

Stagnant wages and volatile living standards

Laborers in urban centers like Lisbon and Coimbra faced stagnant daily wages throughout the century, meaning that their living standards were almost entirely determined by volatile annual food price fluctuations. Historians estimate that workers typically worked around 250 days per year, accounting for illness and non-working days.

Tithe burdens and church grain reserves

Farmers were required to pay about ten percent of their production to the Church, often managed by local commanders who sold the yields for cash regardless of the villagers' needs. This burden was so significant that during times of scarcity, the community often relied on the Church’s grain reserves for survival or seed loans.