Peter II of Portugal

Dom Pedro II, nicknamed the Pacific was King of Portugal from 1683 until his death, previously serving as regent for his brother Afonso VI from 1668 until his own accession. He was the fifth and last child of John IV and Luisa de Guzmán.

Festive clothing for men and women

For festivities, women wore a long red underskirt and a fitted, brightly colored blouse, often carrying their varnished wooden clogs (socos) by hand to avoid damaging them before reaching the feast site. Men wore embroidered linen shirts, cashmere trousers with a red sash, and plush vests for these special celebrations.

Fishermen's work and festive attire

Fishermen typically wore simple linen drawers, a co-called sertum vest, and a wool hat for work, but dressed in blue cloth trousers, vests, and jackets for Sundays and town visits. Silver-buckled shoes were reserved for major feast days like weddings or Saint Peter's Day.

Royal Chapel villancicos featured everyday characters

Starting in 1640, King João IV established a tradition of singing villancicos in the Royal Chapel during major religious festivals like Christmas, Epiphany, and the Immaculate Conception. These songs frequently used relatable figures like sailors, musicians, soldiers, slaves, and gypsies to bridge the social gap between everyday people and the sacred power represented by the monarchy.

Cornetto and dulcian in church services

By the early 17th century, the cornetto and dulcian became standard instruments in major Portuguese cathedrals to double or replace vocal parts. The dulcian was especially versatile, serving as a musical bridge between singers and instrumentalists, and was played during Sunday services and holy days.

Caminheiros: Specialized Travel Messengers

Specialized professionals known as 'caminheiros' were hired for journeys longer than one day to transport small items and deliver oral messages on foot.

Social Restrictions on Transport

Common people typically traveled on foot or by donkey, as riding mules or horses was restricted to the nobility, high clergy, and military leaders until the 16th century.

Low literacy rates in Porto region

In the region of Porto during this period, only about 16% of the population could read and write.

Daily Diet of a Fieldworker

A 17th-century fieldworker typically consumed up to 1 kilogram of bread daily, accompanied by broth, vegetables, small amounts of meat or fish, and large quantities of wine.

Bacalhau as a faithful friend

Dried and salted cod, known as bacalhau, was a highly valued source of animal protein for the poor because it was affordable, durable, and could be stretched to feed many people.

Declining living standards in the 1600s

During the 17th century, living standards for both skilled and unskilled workers in cities like Lisbon and Coimbra declined, placing Portugal among European countries with falling living standards at the time.

Constant agricultural labor without rest

Agricultural workers followed a strict calendar, performing tasks like pruning vines in winter and harvesting wheat and barley in summer, without any scheduled rest days. Their work was constantly overseen by lords and church officials who collected rents and tithes from the produce.

Diverse jobs and wage inequality

In Lisbon, diverse street professions included charcoal sellers, water carriers, and construction workers, while enslaved women often worked as calhandreiras, carrying waste from houses to the beaches. Women were frequently employed in agriculture for tasks like weeding and olive harvesting, often earning significantly less than men, such as receiving 200-240 réis compared to a man's 400-480 réis for beating olive trees.