Maria Manuela, Princess of Portugal

Doña Maria Manuela was the eldest daughter and second child of King John III of Portugal and Catherine of Austria. She was Princess of Asturias and Duchess of Milan as the first wife of the future Philip II of Spain, and Princess of Portugal as heir presumptive to the Portuguese throne between 1527 and 1535.

Ceremonial dress and mourning attire

Ceremonial clothing in the early sixteenth century was often heavy, uncomfortable, and designed solely to be looked at, intentionally preventing the wearer from performing simple daily tasks. During this period, mourners wore coarse fabrics like burel, almáfega, and vaso as a form of penance.

The loba: a versatile outer garment

During the early sixteenth century, both men and women wore a garment called the loba, a loose, ankle-length outer robe that concealed the body's natural shape. It was often worn for public, honorable, or mourning ceremonies.

Common musical instruments in 16th-century Portugal

Common musical instruments in Portugal before 1500 included cordophones like lutes and harps, wind instruments such as flutes, bagpipes, and organs, and percussion like tambourines and adufes. Many instruments were used in secular and religious contexts, though some were banned from religious ceremonies by the church.

Music during royal meals

King Manuel I enjoyed music during his meals, listening to ensembles playing shawms, sackbuts, cornets, harps, drums, and fiddles every Sunday and holy day.

Daily travel distances and pace

A hurried group with riding animals could travel about 40 kilometers per day, provided they were not using oxen, which were much slower. Travelers often measured distances in leagues, though these were imprecise and often determined by how many taverns the muleteers wanted to stop at.

Daily Travel Distances

A hurried travel party on horseback could cover approximately 40 kilometers per day, though this distance was significantly reduced if the animals used for traction were oxen.

Cooking and staple daily diets

Cooking was done on hearths and braziers using ceramic pots, and fuel like firewood and charcoal was a significant household expense that had to be managed carefully. Daily meals typically centered on bread, wine, legumes, onions, garlic, and seasonal vegetables, with fish providing a primary source of protein.

Multifunctional living in cramped urban homes

In cities like Lisbon, many modest households lived in narrow, rented rooms where cooking, sleeping, and storage were all compressed into one space. These homes often used wooden partitions, curtains, and benches to make rooms serve multiple purposes throughout the day.

Common Foods and Market Delicacies

Sardines were a common and affordable fish for the poor, whereas fresh dairy products like cheese, cream, and milk-bread were sold in markets or by street vendors, sometimes adulterated with water. For sweet treats, ordinary people enjoyed honey-based items like alféloas and pinhoada.

Dietary Staples and Substitutes for Meat

While bread, wine, and soup were staples for ordinary people, meat was considered a luxury, often replaced by vegetables like chickpeas, fava beans, and lentils in their daily diet. Vegetables were typically served boiled as accompaniments in soups or stews rather than eaten raw in salads.

Price of poultry and meat luxury

In 1499, a chicken was priced at 30 réis, and meat consumption was generally considered a luxury that was not within everyone's reach.

Higher Bread Costs in Cities

In urban centers like Lisbon, Funchal, and Algarve towns, the cost of daily bread was twice as high as it was in rural agricultural areas.

Diverse Jobs in 16th-Century Lisbon

In 16th-century Lisbon, common jobs included artisans, merchants, and numerous food vendors like regateiras who sold fish and produce. Enslaved people also played a major role, working as street vendors, water carriers, and laborers in various trades.

Rigorous Working Life and Maritime Hardship

A working day for laborers was strictly defined by daylight and religious bells, with rest reserved primarily for Sundays and holy days. Sailors faced particularly harsh conditions, with long, dangerous voyages and limited, poor-quality rations like dried biscuit and salted meat.