Mary of Modena

Mary of Modena was Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland as the second wife of James VII and II. A devout Roman Catholic, Mary married the widower James, who was then the younger brother and heir presumptive of Charles II. She was devoted to James and their children, two of whom survived to adulthood: the Jacobite claimant to the thrones, James Francis Edward Stuart, and Louisa Maria Stuart.

Alamari loops served as fashionable modern fasteners

In the 1650s, court costumes introduced modern decorative elements like alamari, which were folded loops used for fasteners and ornamentation on luxury garments.

Courtly feast day costumes featured exotic feathers

For special feast day performances at court, such as those in the 1640s, noble performers wore intricate costumes featuring exotic elements like heron feathers, which were a popular decorative motif.

Louder music for dancing at carnival

During a 1561 carnival celebration in Piacenza, musicians were instructed to play with increased volume as the party progressed to make the dance music more vigorous.

Lute purchased for 6 scudi

In July 1559, the court paid 6 scudi moneta to the maker Master Martino for a lute, highlighting the instrument's role in personal entertainment for the nobility.

Land travel relied on animals and foot

In the 17th century, travel on land typically relied on the speed of horses, oxen, or walking, with carriages, mules, or foot travel being the primary methods for people to move between towns.

Slow daily travel speeds

Under normal conditions in the 17th century, travelers and cargo rarely moved more than 25 miles per day, with speeds decreasing significantly in bad weather or difficult terrain.

Kitchen life in Piacenza's Apennines

In the Piacenza Apennines, the kitchen was the family hub, featuring a large, protruding wooden hood over a hearth where fires were sometimes built directly on the floor. Wealthy families often built niches into the walls beside the fireplace, allowing them to rest and stay warm near the fire.

Ursuline education for girls

Ursuline sisters in Parma and Piacenza managed a unique form of cloister that allowed them to leave their homes to attend church and teach local girls. Families valued this education because it provided a controlled way for their daughters to be seen in public.

Bread and subsistence diets

City dwellers often ate bread made with fine flour, while rural families frequently relied on coarser bread mixtures containing pulses and less valuable cereals. In times of extreme hardship, rural inhabitants might sustain themselves primarily on beans and chestnuts.

Taxes on everyday foods

During the mid-17th century, authorities imposed specific taxes on everyday food items including cheese, fruits, wine, cakes, pastries, salami, and fresh pork.

Regulated bread and food distribution during crises

In times of famine, authorities in the Duchy fixed maximum daily purchase quantities for cereals to limit speculation. They also opened state-run shops to sell bread made from lower-quality cereals and pulses at low, controlled prices to help the poorest citizens.

High salt costs impacted livestock economy

Salt was so expensive in the Duchy of Savoy that officials feared high prices ruined households and discouraged farmers from giving necessary portions to their cattle. This high cost of salt negatively affected milk, cheese, and meat production.

Peasant Rents and Sales

Peasant families paying rent for land often paid in money and agricultural products, such as an inescapable pair of capons due by November 11th, St. Martin's Day. They supplemented their income by selling surplus wine, poultry, eggs, and cheese.

Unpaid Apprenticeships for Bakers

To become a professional baker, an apprentice often had to work for free for at least five years. Only the most skilled apprentices were eventually awarded a salary.

Affordable letter delivery for commoners

Ordinary people could send letters via prearranged couriers on regular timetables, with costs dropping enough to be affordable for a middling class of society. Sending a letter might cost the equivalent of three or four loaves of bread.

Postal networks and information flow

Postal systems connected smaller courts like Parma and Piacenza to larger European networks, using established nodes and courier routes. News and letters often relied on these relay systems where postmasters helped diffuse information and newsletters.