Mary I

Mary I was Queen of England and Ireland from July 1553 and Queen of Spain as the wife of King Philip II from January 1556 until her death in 1558. She made vigorous attempts to reverse the English Reformation, which had begun during the reign of her father, King Henry VIII.

Limited wardrobes for the commoners

Many ordinary people owned only one set of clothes for daytime wear and lacked dedicated sleepwear, opting to sleep in their smocks and nightcaps.

Footwear and Headgear in the Highlands

Highlanders often went barefoot and barelegged, though some wore simple single-soled shoes and flat, generally blue, soft caps.

Nightly Patrols by Civic Musicians

Civic musicians called waits often patrolled town streets at night on winter nights, providing entertainment and calling out the time or weather.

Paying Minstrels for Parish Festivals

Parish records show that minstrel hire for Whitsuntide festivities was common, with payments reaching up to 8s 4d for a single minstrel in 1533.

Carts were for cargo, not people

Carts and wagons were used to transport cargo, not people, and passengers who rode in them sat on the floor among straw or baggage. These vehicles were extremely slow and were widely considered an uncomfortable or shameful way for a person to travel.

Horses were the fastest travel option

Riding a horse was the fastest and most reliable way to travel for those who could afford one. A basic riding horse cost about £4 to £5, a sum many skilled tradesmen struggled to earn in an entire year.

Inexpensive rushlights versus luxury beeswax

Rushlights, made from dried plant pith dipped in tallow, were a common and inexpensive light source for the poor. In contrast, beeswax candles were luxury items, costing up to six times more than tallow.

Open fire cooking and cookshops

Cooking usually took place over an open fire, often involving stews in a cauldron or roasting meat on a spit. Many poorer people lacked cooking facilities at home and relied on cookshops for takeaway food.

Pottage was the staple daily dish

Pottage was the main daily dish for ordinary people, a thick soup made of cereals, pulses, vegetables, and occasionally meat that was cooked in a cauldron over an open fire.

The poor used acorns to make bread

When flour was scarce, the very poor would grind acorns to make bread as a desperate substitute.

Cost of Basic Food Items

A loaf of bread (24 oz) cost 1 penny, and 1 pound of cheese cost 1 1/2 pence. A skilled worker could buy a dozen eggs for 4d and a pound of cheese for 1 1/2d with their daily wage.

Earnings of Workers and Servants

Unskilled laborers earned between £5 and £10 per year, while skilled workmen typically earned about 6d per day. Farm workers often earned no more than half a shilling (6d) per day, and many servants were paid as little as six shillings annually plus board.

Farming was the most common job

Farming was the primary occupation, with nine out of ten people living in rural villages or small towns.

Workdays started before daybreak

The working day typically began before daybreak, often around 4 or 5 a.m., and lasted until sunset.

Speed of royal courier mail delivery

Letters sent by royal post between Greenwich and Stirling around 1515 typically took five or six days to arrive. This exceptional speed was achieved by specialized court messengers traveling with the utmost possible rapidity.

Carriers and Delivery Times

Common carriers often traveled between major cities like London and Norwich, typically taking three or four days to complete the journey. These carriers were highly trusted and frequently carried valuables, such as money, alongside letters for their customers.